所谓有理有据,指的是既有原理/机理解释,也有数据支持。
只有原理分析,没有数据支持,那叫猜测/推测,说服力不足。比如,尼古丁能杀癌细胞,有这个“原理”,我们能得出“抽烟可以治疗癌症”吗?
知乎上许多关于果糖的说法就是如此,只有代谢的原理,没有量化研究。外行看来好像很有道理,内行看来结论很大程度具有主观性。
果糖和葡萄糖是单糖,蔗糖是双糖,淀粉是多糖;双糖和多糖在各种酶的作用下降解为单糖,然后才能被身体使用。
葡萄糖代谢的主要器官是肌肉[77,78,79],其次是大脑,葡萄糖偏向于作为能量被使用,即便严重过量,也很少被转化为人体脂肪[12,13,14,15,18]。
葡萄糖首先在转运蛋白[16,17]的帮助下从小肠吸收,进入血液,然后被运往肌肉/肝脏等地方合成肝糖原,或者给大脑、心脏、骨骼肌等器官作为能量使用。
在(肌肉等)细胞内,葡萄糖先走糖酵解(葡萄糖转丙酮酸),然后走柠檬酸循环(转乙酰辅酶A,与草酰乙酸缩合为柠檬酸),然后被氧化成二氧化碳和水并产生能量。注意,柠檬酸循环释放的能量并不是直接用于身体细胞,而是储存在ATP(更多是磷酸原系统)中。
此外,葡萄糖除了走柠檬酸循环,还可以走戊糖磷酸途径来释放能量。这在一些实验中被证实,当使用一些抑制剂,抑制了糖酵解(阻止葡萄糖转丙酮酸),葡萄糖依然可以被氧化供能。
果糖代谢的主要在肝脏,其次是小肠和肾脏。
摄入的果糖,首先在转运蛋白glut5的帮助下进入小肠,被转化为1-磷酸果糖、葡萄糖和脂肪酸[69];小肠也有果糖代谢的相关酶,能促进果糖代谢为葡萄糖/乳酸/乳糜等[33,34,35]。
然后,果糖在转运蛋白glut2[17]的帮助下进入肠细胞和门静脉,并被运输进入肝脏;有些数据显示,摄入的果糖约85.5%进入肝脏[68]。
在肝细胞内,果糖在酶的作用下[19,20,21]被转化为1-磷酸果糖;1-磷酸果糖的去路有三条:葡萄糖、丙酮酸(乳酸)[17]和脂肪酸[22,23,24,25,26]。
除了小肠和肝脏,肾脏也是糖代谢的重要器官,早在大半个世纪之前,科学就证明了这一点。
当然,肾脏也是果糖代谢重要器官[70,71]。
也就是说,葡萄糖和果糖代谢的最大不同可能在于:如果过量的话(注意这个前提),葡萄糖很少被转化为脂肪;果糖相对容易促成脂肪肝和高血脂[17,24];因此,过量饮用添加糖饮料与代谢疾病、胰岛素抵抗有关[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]。
的确,含果糖饮料摄入与体重增加密切相关[36],也与高血压、血脂异常、痛风和心血管疾病的发病率有关[37,38,39,40,41,42]。但调整体重后,这些关联变得更弱或者消失了[43],这表明,果糖对人体的危害很大程度上是以过量热量的方式来实现的,而非其本身的代谢特性。
一项包含了14个等热量试验和两项高热量试验的大型元分析[49],作者对果糖与餐后血脂进行汇总分析表明,把果糖与其他碳水化合物进行等热量交换,不会增加餐后血脂(尽管不能100%排除这种影响)。
特别值得一提的是顶刊《BMJ》上发表的一项关于糖和体重的大型元分析,包含了从7895个实验中筛选出的30个、从9445项队列研究中筛选出的38个研究[50]。
其重要结论是:The data suggest that the change in body fatness that occurs with modifying intake of sugars results from an alteration in energy balance rather than a physiological or metabolic consequence of monosaccharides or disaccharides.
翻译过来就是:数据表明,随着糖摄入量的改变而发生的肥胖是由于能量平衡的改变,而不是单糖或双糖的生理或代谢结果。
这些也与我们之前的文章[67]所列举的大量证据相互支持:虽然食物的种类和质量有独立影响,但总体上总热量是决定短期内减肥效果的主要因素[51,52,53];不管高脂肪饮食[54,55,56,57,58]还是传统碳水占比较大的饮食[59,60,61],热量摄入类似则减肥效果类似的[62,63,64,65,66]。
有人列举了研究证明在摄入大量果糖后一段时间,肝脏脂肪增加了76%[81]。看上去很严重,但这个是建立在两个前提下的:
(1)果糖摄入量很夸张;
(2)总能量摄入增加了35%,并且增加部分几乎都是由果糖组成。
在该研究中,受试者摄入的果糖量是每kg瘦体重3.5g;假如一个男性75kg体重/体脂20%,那么瘦体重是60kg,那他每天摄入果糖60*3.5=210g。
还有其他类似的研究也发现,果糖增加了肝脏脂肪水平[44,45],也是果糖占了总热量比例的30%以上,如果按照平均每人每日2000大卡来说,总热量30%接近700大卡,相当于175g果糖左右。
30-35%的总热量,明显是拿果糖当饭吃了,远远超出了我们平时的果糖摄入量。根据上海市营养食品质检站的估算[46],一倍470ml左右的奶茶含糖近60g。
我随手搜了一些我国的糖摄入量数据:
中国九省成人含糖饮料消费及添加糖摄入量的趋势分析--《卫生研究》2014年01期,平均每人每日13.4g糖;
2015年中国15省份儿童青少年糖摄入的研究 - 中国知网,青少年糖摄入量中位数为12.6g;
我国3岁及以上居民碳酸饮料中添加糖摄入状况分析-论文-万方医学网,每日添加糖撮入量的中位数,男性15.3g女性10.1g,城市13.8g农村10.7g;
中国人年均糖消费居全球倒数第七 营养专家开出吃“糖”处方,我国人年均消费8千克糖,每人日均21.9g左右。
注意,吃下去的糖一般不会全是果糖,可能还有蔗糖,所以上述数据向果糖转化时,还要打折扣。也就是说,我国居民平均每日糖摄入量10-13g左右(虽然食物中有隐形糖,但没有直接数据证明隐形糖会显著影响上述结论),这些说果糖严重造成危害的研究[44,45,81]中每日180-210g果糖摄入量,相当于我国官方统计数据的10-20倍。
需要注意的是,即便在这些强调“过量摄入果糖”的研究中[44,48],受试者们的短期血脂上升,也在正常的生理范围内。另外一些研究发现[47],当摄入果糖占每日总能量15%左右(等于75g左右,必然比官方数据翻了好几倍),也没有发现肝内脂肪含量显著变化。
大家都知道,葡萄糖更多是作为能量被使用(肌肉和大脑),相比之下,果糖主要肝脏代谢。一些自媒体为了博眼球,过分强调这一点,暗示果糖可能会全部留在肝脏,变成脂肪之类,危害健康。
脱离剂量讨论是不科学的,在正常情况下(非过量摄入)果糖有大约30-60%左右被氧化,还有30-50%被转为葡萄糖[28]和乳酸等,转化成脂肪的比例并不高。
至于葡萄糖,它也相对不容易使人发胖,更不是某些自媒体说的是“发胖的元凶”。
其实,人体不擅长把葡萄糖转化为脂肪;跟其他一些动物(比如猪)相比[57,58,59],人类把膳食碳水转化为自身脂肪的能力较弱。这可能是因为人类的早期祖先是灵长类动物,以树叶和果实为生,并不容易吃到大量 的碳水化合物,仅有的碳水需要给身体和大脑供能。
此外,即便要把碳水转化为脂肪,这个过程本身也十分繁琐,需要11步。
相比之下,脂肪膳食脂肪可以直接水解得到脂肪酸,省(bian)事(jie)多了。
这个观点我之前的文章[29]已经阐述过:
我们举2个典型证据:注射25g葡萄糖后,只有0.5%-2%被转化为脂肪组织中的脂肪[30];即便长期吃高碳水饮食,葡萄糖合成脂肪酸的量也很少,对于肥胖者来说大约有10g/天[31],非肥胖受试者不超过几克/天[32]。
肉崽:人到底是怎样长胖的?
肉崽:为什么都说增肌要碳水?
肉崽:健身增肌的原理是什么?
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