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果糖、葡萄糖、蔗糖和淀粉在体内代谢有何不同,为什么果糖相对而言危害大? 第1页

  

user avatar   rou-zai-52 网友的相关建议: 
      

知乎上许多急于恰饭的自媒体把果糖的危害夸大了

所谓有理有据,指的是既有原理/机理解释,也有数据支持。

只有原理分析,没有数据支持,那叫猜测/推测,说服力不足。比如,尼古丁能杀癌细胞,有这个“原理”,我们能得出“抽烟可以治疗癌症”吗?

知乎上许多关于果糖的说法就是如此,只有代谢的原理,没有量化研究。外行看来好像很有道理,内行看来结论很大程度具有主观性。


葡萄糖代谢:即便严重过量也很少被转化为脂肪

果糖和葡萄糖是单糖,蔗糖是双糖,淀粉是多糖;双糖和多糖在各种酶的作用下降解为单糖,然后才能被身体使用。

葡萄糖代谢的主要器官是肌肉[77,78,79],其次是大脑,葡萄糖偏向于作为能量被使用,即便严重过量,也很少被转化为人体脂肪[12,13,14,15,18]。

葡萄糖首先在转运蛋白[16,17]的帮助下从小肠吸收,进入血液,然后被运往肌肉/肝脏等地方合成肝糖原,或者给大脑、心脏、骨骼肌等器官作为能量使用。

在(肌肉等)细胞内,葡萄糖先走糖酵解(葡萄糖转丙酮酸),然后走柠檬酸循环(转乙酰辅酶A,与草酰乙酸缩合为柠檬酸),然后被氧化成二氧化碳和水并产生能量。注意,柠檬酸循环释放的能量并不是直接用于身体细胞,而是储存在ATP(更多是磷酸原系统)中。

此外,葡萄糖除了走柠檬酸循环,还可以走戊糖磷酸途径来释放能量。这在一些实验中被证实,当使用一些抑制剂,抑制了糖酵解(阻止葡萄糖转丙酮酸),葡萄糖依然可以被氧化供能。


果糖的代谢:过量部分相对容易转化为脂肪

果糖代谢的主要在肝脏,其次是小肠和肾脏。

摄入的果糖,首先在转运蛋白glut5的帮助下进入小肠,被转化为1-磷酸果糖、葡萄糖和脂肪酸[69];小肠也有果糖代谢的相关酶,能促进果糖代谢为葡萄糖/乳酸/乳糜等[33,34,35]。

然后,果糖在转运蛋白glut2[17]的帮助下进入肠细胞和门静脉,并被运输进入肝脏;有些数据显示,摄入的果糖约85.5%进入肝脏[68]。

在肝细胞内,果糖在酶的作用下[19,20,21]被转化为1-磷酸果糖;1-磷酸果糖的去路有三条:葡萄糖、丙酮酸(乳酸)[17]和脂肪酸[22,23,24,25,26]。


除了小肠和肝脏,肾脏也是糖代谢的重要器官,早在大半个世纪之前,科学就证明了这一点。

  • 1937年发现肾脏能利用糖代谢中间产物(丙酮酸等)产生葡萄糖[72];
  • 1949年发现肾脏切除后动物的血糖快速下降[73];
  • 1978年发现大鼠的血糖有26%-46%来自肾脏[74]。

当然,肾脏也是果糖代谢重要器官[70,71]。

  • 1961年发现肾脏能处理约19%的果糖,将其转化为葡萄糖[75];
  • 1982年发现注射的果糖约20%被肾脏吸收并护理[76];
  • 1989年发现肾脏处理了果糖吸收总量的20-25%[80]。

也就是说,葡萄糖和果糖代谢的最大不同可能在于:如果过量的话(注意这个前提),葡萄糖很少被转化为脂肪;果糖相对容易促成脂肪肝和高血脂[17,24];因此,过量饮用添加糖饮料与代谢疾病、胰岛素抵抗有关[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]。


果糖的“危害”主要通过过量热量介导,而非其代谢方式

的确,含果糖饮料摄入与体重增加密切相关[36],也与高血压、血脂异常、痛风和心血管疾病的发病率有关[37,38,39,40,41,42]。但调整体重后,这些关联变得更弱或者消失了[43],这表明,果糖对人体的危害很大程度上是以过量热量的方式来实现的,而非其本身的代谢特性。

一项包含了14个等热量试验和两项高热量试验的大型元分析[49],作者对果糖与餐后血脂进行汇总分析表明,把果糖与其他碳水化合物进行等热量交换,不会增加餐后血脂(尽管不能100%排除这种影响)。

特别值得一提的是顶刊《BMJ》上发表的一项关于糖和体重的大型元分析,包含了从7895个实验中筛选出的30个、从9445项队列研究中筛选出的38个研究[50]。

其重要结论是:The data suggest that the change in body fatness that occurs with modifying intake of sugars results from an alteration in energy balance rather than a physiological or metabolic consequence of monosaccharides or disaccharides.

翻译过来就是:数据表明,随着糖摄入量的改变而发生的肥胖是由于能量平衡的改变,而不是单糖或双糖的生理或代谢结果

这些也与我们之前的文章[67]所列举的大量证据相互支持:虽然食物的种类和质量有独立影响,但总体上总热量是决定短期内减肥效果的主要因素[51,52,53];不管高脂肪饮食[54,55,56,57,58]还是传统碳水占比较大的饮食[59,60,61],热量摄入类似则减肥效果类似的[62,63,64,65,66]。


现有“果糖有害”的研究,是建立在“摄入量过分夸张”基础上的

有人列举了研究证明在摄入大量果糖后一段时间,肝脏脂肪增加了76%[81]。看上去很严重,但这个是建立在两个前提下的:

(1)果糖摄入量很夸张;

(2)总能量摄入增加了35%,并且增加部分几乎都是由果糖组成。

在该研究中,受试者摄入的果糖量是每kg瘦体重3.5g;假如一个男性75kg体重/体脂20%,那么瘦体重是60kg,那他每天摄入果糖60*3.5=210g

还有其他类似的研究也发现,果糖增加了肝脏脂肪水平[44,45],也是果糖占了总热量比例的30%以上,如果按照平均每人每日2000大卡来说,总热量30%接近700大卡,相当于175g果糖左右。

30-35%的总热量,明显是拿果糖当饭吃了,远远超出了我们平时的果糖摄入量。根据上海市营养食品质检站的估算[46],一倍470ml左右的奶茶含糖近60g。

我随手搜了一些我国的糖摄入量数据:

中国九省成人含糖饮料消费及添加糖摄入量的趋势分析--《卫生研究》2014年01期,平均每人每日13.4g糖;

2015年中国15省份儿童青少年糖摄入的研究 - 中国知网,青少年糖摄入量中位数为12.6g

我国3岁及以上居民碳酸饮料中添加糖摄入状况分析-论文-万方医学网,每日添加糖撮入量的中位数,男性15.3g女性10.1g,城市13.8g农村10.7g

中国人年均糖消费居全球倒数第七 营养专家开出吃“糖”处方,我国人年均消费8千克糖,每人日均21.9g左右。

注意,吃下去的糖一般不会全是果糖,可能还有蔗糖,所以上述数据向果糖转化时,还要打折扣。也就是说,我国居民平均每日糖摄入量10-13g左右(虽然食物中有隐形糖,但没有直接数据证明隐形糖会显著影响上述结论),这些说果糖严重造成危害的研究[44,45,81]中每日180-210g果糖摄入量,相当于我国官方统计数据的10-20倍。

需要注意的是,即便在这些强调“过量摄入果糖”的研究中[44,48],受试者们的短期血脂上升,也在正常的生理范围内。另外一些研究发现[47],当摄入果糖占每日总能量15%左右(等于75g左右,必然比官方数据翻了好几倍),也没有发现肝内脂肪含量显著变化。


正常情况下,果糖大部分成为燃料

大家都知道,葡萄糖更多是作为能量被使用(肌肉和大脑),相比之下,果糖主要肝脏代谢。一些自媒体为了博眼球,过分强调这一点,暗示果糖可能会全部留在肝脏,变成脂肪之类,危害健康。

脱离剂量讨论是不科学的,在正常情况下(非过量摄入)果糖有大约30-60%左右被氧化,还有30-50%被转为葡萄糖[28]和乳酸等,转化成脂肪的比例并不高。

至于葡萄糖,它也相对不容易使人发胖,更不是某些自媒体说的是“发胖的元凶”。

其实,人体不擅长把葡萄糖转化为脂肪;跟其他一些动物(比如猪)相比[57,58,59],人类把膳食碳水转化为自身脂肪的能力较弱。这可能是因为人类的早期祖先是灵长类动物,以树叶和果实为生,并不容易吃到大量 的碳水化合物,仅有的碳水需要给身体和大脑供能。

此外,即便要把碳水转化为脂肪,这个过程本身也十分繁琐,需要11步。

相比之下,脂肪膳食脂肪可以直接水解得到脂肪酸,省(bian)事(jie)多了。

这个观点我之前的文章[29]已经阐述过:

为什么碳水和糖才是长胖元凶,明明脂肪热量更高啊?

我们举2个典型证据:注射25g葡萄糖后,只有0.5%-2%被转化为脂肪组织中的脂肪[30];即便长期吃高碳水饮食,葡萄糖合成脂肪酸的量也很少,对于肥胖者来说大约有10g/天[31],非肥胖受试者不超过几克/天[32]。

关于果糖代谢的定量研究,到底有%多少的果糖被氧化,%转化为脂肪,这些我在另一篇回答中已经列举了大量数据进行详细分析:


扩展阅读

肉崽:人到底是怎样长胖的?

肉崽:瘦的人都有怎样的饮食习惯?

肉崽:不健身直接吃蛋白粉会怎么样?

肉崽:为什么碳水和糖才是长胖元凶,明明脂肪热量更高啊?

肉崽:当代年轻人为什么尿酸会高?

肉崽:为什么都说增肌要碳水?

肉崽:健身增肌的原理是什么?


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user avatar   a-rong-enzyme 网友的相关建议: 
      

深度分析一下。

在看郑爽的一些相关事件的时候,我有一种强烈的感觉,郑爽是一个非常复杂且混乱的人。

她呈现给大众一个非常极端的两面,一面是令人怜惜的恋爱脑形象,一面是利用别人的心机girl。

换句话说,率真、义无反顾是她,冷漠、富有心机也是她。

当这极端的两面化为一个人时,大众就会感觉很困惑,难以理解她的各种迷惑行为。

她的这种极端性和两面性,都源于她和其家人固有的一系列的人际关系模式:

第一层次:“爱你的前提是你要对我有用”,“利用你是爱你的一种方式”;

第二层次:“我在感情里可以肆无忌惮地利用你”;

第三层次:“为了爱你(用你),我可以连自己都不放过”。

有网友总结,郑爽为张翰整容,为胡彦斌写书,给张恒送孩子。

看起来是傻女人为爱痴缠,其实这里的“爱”,本质上还是一种利用。

当年她跟张翰的恋情里,单方面公布分手,还自爆为爱整容。

为爱整容是真的,但以此为由给张翰施压也是真的。

对外宣称是因为跟张翰在一起自卑而整容,再单方面宣布分手,无疑是塑造弱势形象,给张翰施加愧疚感,以此来达到她的情感目的。

如果说把他们爱的纠缠叫做套路和利用,有些过度解读,那么分手后,不断炒作前任的行为就越发体现了她的情感模式:“爱就是工具”。

跟胡彦斌分手后,一边是郑爽爸爸出面说胡彦斌是花心大萝卜的渣男,一边郑爽又写书,表示对胡彦斌的留恋:“这是唯一想让我写进书里,关于爱情的人”;

同时也不忘展现自己的弱势形象:“支持你做任何事情,哪怕你只想玩玩感情,我都能够接受你的放纵”。

比起张翰的隐忍,胡彦斌选择用歌来抒发自己内心的涌动:

“你说的这么认真,显得我存心敷衍,这些套路的情节,苍白地上了台面”(胡彦斌自己定义为“套路”);

“你要的全拿走,剩下的我承受,留下我们的狗,别管有没有用,我怕它以后没人宠”。

在与张恒的恋情中,工具人的关系模式继续升级,这次充当工具的是两个无辜的小生命。

从郑爽录音里的态度来看,这完全不是想要成为一名母亲该有的状态。相较于上次的为爱整容,这次恐怕又是为爱“生子”。

感情好的时候,公司开着时候,张恒还有用的时候,赶紧整两个孩子让情感联结更深一点,感情吹了,就动弃养的心思。

在最新曝光的录音中,进一步证明她的内在逻辑是“孩子就是感情的工具,以后感情要是还有,孩子就重新要”。

回到前面提到的郑爽的人际关系模式:“为了爱你(用你),我可以连自己都不放过”。

作为一个女明星,在考虑要孩子的时候就应该很清楚,假如有一天感情破裂,秘密泄露,对她自己的发展会有怎样的后果,但她还是那么做了,也能看出她的极端:

一方面,可能当时真的感觉来了,爱的死去活来;另一方面,作为极度害怕被抛弃的类型,她的内心也一定极度焦虑,以至于不考虑后果地寄希望于通过孩子来避免这种焦虑。

郑爽这类女孩,其实对任何男性可能都具有致命的诱惑力。她在爱情中的义无反顾,会让你们的感情迅速拉近,并且你会被代入到她的“人生剧本”中;

而当你发现,她曾经表现出来的义无反顾和深沉的爱,其实是一种换取你更多情感价值和物质价值的手段时,你又会三观炸裂,感觉亦真亦假。

但此时,你已经在与她的纠缠中无法自拔了。

就像张恒,当郑爽提出要代孕时,他之所以会答应,一定有感动的成分(假如不是男方阴谋):“眼前这个女人一定是想跟我一辈子的,否则不会担风险要孩子。”




我们中国人常讲究要中庸,这真是大智慧,放到人的人格特征上也是如此。

如果你感觉眼前的这个男生或者女生,情绪、想法、行为都容易走极端,个性过于“分裂”,那还是尽量远离吧,因为他/她可能是一朵有毒的玫瑰。

如果我们是跟郑爽有类似的人格特点,那还是要先以自我完善和成长为主,而不是寄希望用什么东西或手段来拴住一个人或一段感情,尤其是用孩子!


我是暗涌,心理学科普作者,关注我,用心理学视角看人性!



user avatar   kuntengclinic 网友的相关建议: 
      


user avatar   floyd-liao 网友的相关建议: 
      

朋友太漂亮,那就把她拿下,性别不要卡的太死,因为要攻略美女很刺激有了目的性反而会更期待见面走在一起,我就是这么做的,所以现在这个大美女朋友不但一直和我在一起还给我钱花,我说的很粗俗很离谱可人活一次管那么多世俗规则干嘛。




  

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